XIII.	Glossary

		This course introduces a number of technical terms, some deriving from general linguistics and some of my own invention.  It therefore seems useful to provide a glossary for students who may have some difficulty remembering the meaning of such terms.  The terms explained in the glossary are often capitalized in order to indicate that the student may want to refer to what is said in another place.

Analogical Analysis.  Analysis of the Referential content of a Discourse with particular attention to analogical relations between contents of different types, such as metaphoric and allusive relationships.  (Analogical Analysis goes together with Rhetorical Analysis and Motific Analysis.)

Application.  A stage in studying a Text in which an interpreter endeavors to discern the implications of the text for practice in life.  (Application goes together with Observation, Interpretation, and Correlation.)

Clause.  A Grammatical Unit consisting of a verb and the surrounding units that are connected to it.  Verbless clauses also exist in Hebrew and Greek, but typically they presuppose a verb like “is.”

Context.  The various elements surrounding a given item.  Both immediate physical contexts, mental associations, and broader linguistic and cultural milieu are relevant.  In the case of communication, there are at least three salient contexts, namely (1) the immediate context of the utterance itself, including the source and target of the utterance and the medium in which it is carried; (2) the context of the world about which the communication is speaking; (3) the context of the language system or other communicative system (e.g., visual arts) used in the communication.  (Context goes together with Unit and Hierarchy.)

Contrast and Identity.  See under Identity.

Correlation.  A stage in studying a Text in which an interpreter compares a text with its contexts in order to appreciate more deeply its uniqueness and its relations with other texts.  This stage may be left in the background if one is interested in focusing on what a text says in distinction from its contexts.  (In small inductive Bible study groups Correlation may be deliberately left in the background, so that the group may concentrate on one text without being drawn away in ten directions, and so that people who are just beginning to study the Bible may not have an embarrassing disadvantage compared to those who are more familiar with the Bible.)  (Correlation goes together with Observation, Interpretation, and Application.)

Covenant.  A formalized pact between two persons or groups of persons, in which violations of the pact are subject to sanctions.

Diachronic Analysis.  A comparison between two or more Discourses, languages, or events from different times, one of which is thought to be a source of others.  Such comparison endeavors to determine the modifications and alterations in later use of earlier ideas, words, structures, or other items.  (Diachronic Analysis contrasts with Synchronic Analysis.)

Discourse.  A connected piece of human communication in language.  In my use the word “Discourse” covers pieces of any size, ranging from a single morpheme or word to a long monologue or multivolume series of texts.  Others linguists and biblical scholars sometimes use the word in quite different ways.

Distribution.  The set of contexts in which a particular unit (such as a word) can normally be found.  For example, the word “perceive” as a verb normally occurs together with subjects that will be persons, and with objects that will be things or abstracts.  (Distribution goes together with Identity and Variation.)

Form Criticism.  The practice (usually within the framework of the Historical-critical Method) of examining extant texts to detect certain fixed “forms” or characteristic patterns of organization that are supposed to reveal oral traditions and sources picked up by the text.  Characteristically each “form” is thought to correspond to a particular life-setting among the people who passed on the material orally, and hence analysis of extant forms can be used to reconstruct some of the history of oral stages behind the text.  (Form Criticism as generally practiced is a distinctively Diachronic approach, and as such should be carefully contrasted with Genre Analysis.)

Genre.  A group of Discourses from a particular culture that would be recognized by natives of the culture as using common conventions and showing certain similarities, whether in content, style, formal devices, or organization.  Genres can be either broad (“poetry”) or narrow (“love sonnet”) or somewhere in between (“lyric poetry”).

Genre Analysis or Genre Criticism.  The practice of studying the Genres of Discourses.

Grammatical.  Having to do with Grammar.

Grammatical Subsystem.  The subsystem of a language organizing its internal structure and enabling speakers and hearers to move between sound and meaning.  (See under “System.”)  The first two lines of the poem “Jabberwocky” illustrate the fact that grammar exists even when referential meaning is almost wholly absent.  “’Twas brillig, and the slithy toves did gyre and gimble in the wabe:/ all mimsy were the borogoves, and the mome raths outgrabe.”  (Grammatical Subsystem goes together with Referential Subsystem and Phonological Subsystem.)

Grammar.  The study of the Grammatical Subsystem and its use in particular Discourses.  But sometimes “grammar” becomes a synonym for “Grammatical Subsystem.”

Graphology.  The study of the Graphological Subsystem and its use in particular Discourses.

Graphological Subsystem.  The subsystem of a language organizing the written (graphic) alphabetical symbols, punctuation, paragraphing, and other signals characterizing the organization of text on paper.  (Graphological Subsystem goes together with Grammatical Subsystem and Referential Subsystem.  See also Phonological Subsystem.)

Hierarchy.  The systematic, structured arrangement of smaller Units into larger ones.  For example, in the phrase “the old man” the three words “the,” “old,” and “man” fit together to form a noun phrase.  The relation of the words to the whole phrase is a form of hierarchy.

Historical-critical Method.  The dominant framework for historical investigation within the mainstream of biblical scholarship from the nineteenth century into the late twentieth century.  This framework presupposes an antisupernaturalistic world view where miracles are thought not to happen and where prophetic prediction of the distant future is impossible.  The main tools of the Historical-critical Method include Source Criticism, Form Criticism, and Redaction Criticism, as well as more general attempts to understand the historical origin of biblical texts.

Integrality.  The characteristic fact that Discourses consist of wholes (Units or “chunks”) of smaller and larger sizes, each with a unity of its own, and that larger Units are typically composed of a number of smaller Units.  (Integrality goes together with Prominence and Organization.)

Identity (and Contrast).  The features that give a particular unit its own particular unity and distinguish it from other units, including units with similar meaning or function.  For example, the English word “perceive” has a unity of spelling, pronunciation, and meaning.  It contrasts with other verbs like “jump” and “hit” in many ways, among them by the fact that it is a verb describing a mental experience, not primarily an action involving bodily motion.  It also contrasts with words like “know” that are similar in meaning, by suggesting that a person’s knowledge has overcome obstacles or obscurities, and by suggesting an analogy with visual senses.  (Identity goes together with Variation and Distribution.)

Interpretation.  When used in contrast with Observation and Application, “Interpretation” designates a stage in studying a Text in which an interpreter tries to analyze and synthesize the meaning of the text and its parts, in a way consistent with all Observation of the text.  (Interpretation goes together with Observation, Correlation, and Application.)  When used in other contexts, “Interpretation” designates the entire process of interacting with a discourse to appropriate its import.

Justification.  An act of God’s free grace, wherein he pardoneth all our sins, and accepteth us as righteous in his sight, only for the righteousness of Christ imputed to us, and received by faith alone.  (WSC Q. 33).

Linguistic.  Having to do with natural human language or the study of languages.

Linguistics.  The study of natural human languages.

Literary Criticism.  The practice of studying a text to appreciate its communication in the fullest way.  Typically special attention is given to ways in which formal devices, conventions, and features of style may subtly enhance the text’s artistry and the effectiveness of the total act of communication.  In the secular field of literary studies, including much of what goes on in university departments of English and departments of comparative literature, the exact texture of literary criticism may be heavily influenced by any of a number of competing schools.  Some forms of literary criticism treat every text as “literature” in a narrow aesthetic sense.  They study only aesthetic effects and pointedly ignore the straight-forward claims of biblical texts and other uninspired texts to be asserting truth and making historical claims.  But such discounting of propositional claims is not necessarily inherent in the label.
		In former generations “literary criticism” was the normal label within biblical studies for what might better be called “Source Criticism.”  Such a designation is now quite confusing because secular literary studies use the term “literary criticism” in a different sense.

Morpheme.  The minimal meaningful unit of Grammar.  For example, “-ness,” “-ing,” and the plural “-s” (sometimes “-es”) are morphemes in English and new words can regularly be constructed out of them.  In the word “goodness,” “good” and “-ness” are both morphemes.  When “good” appears as a separate word, it is simultaneously both a word and a morpheme.  When it occurs in the word “goodness,” it is a morpheme but not a word.

Motific Analysis.  Analysis of the Referential content and organization of a Discourse, with particular attention to those features (e.g., themes or motifs) that are invariant under rearrangements of the content.  (Motific Analysis goes together with Rhetorical Analysis and Analogical Analysis.)

Observation.  A stage in studying a Text in which the interpreter asks many elementary questions concerning the text and tries to notice as many distinctive features of the text as possible.  (Observation goes together with Interpretation, Correlation, and Application.)

Organization.  The characteristic fact that in Discourses the parts make certain definite contributions in the whole into which they fit, and that parts play certain distinct roles in making their contribution to the meaning of the whole.  Parts are not thrown randomly together in order to make up a whole, but rather supplement and complement one another in complex ways.  (Organization goes together with Integrality and Prominence.)

Paragraph.  A Referential Unit of Discourse typically composed of several sentences and united by a common theme or subject matter.  Written paragraph markings in written texts often do single out paragraphs in the technical sense, but of course a written paragraph marking may not always mark out breaks between two themes or subject matters.

Phonological.  Having to do with Phonology.

Phonological Subsystem.  The subsystem of a language organizing the sounds that are normally used in oral communication.  (See also under “System” and “Graphological Subsystem.”)  The existence of sound sequences that “sound like” English (e.g., “fet”) and other sequences that are not English (e.g., “pnet”) as well as the symmetrical organization of language sounds in phonological charts shows that there are complex regularities to the sounds used in any particular natural language.  (Phonological Subsystem goes together with Grammatical Subsystem and Referential Subsystem.)

Phonology.  The study of the sound subsystem and its use in particular discourses.  But sometimes “phonology” becomes a synonym for “Phonological Subsystem.”

Prominence.  The characteristic fact that certain parts of a Discourse receive more emphasis and are more important to the overall communication.  The prominent parts “stick out” and alterations in them tend to change the overall meaning more seriously than do alterations in the less prominent parts.  (Prominence goes together with Integrality and Organization.)

Proposition.  A minimal Referential Unit that says something about something.  Typically a proposition will contain only one verbal form.  Note that my use of “Proposition” is not the same as the common use in formal logic or philosophy.

Redaction Criticism.  The practice (usually within the framework of the Historical-critical Method) of studying a text or texts in order to detect the emphases and shifts in content introduced by editors (“redactors”) as the editors work over and shape earlier materials.  Redaction Criticism as originally conceived was distinctively a Diachronic approach that involved detailed comparison of a given text with its supposed predecessors.  As such, Redaction Criticism should be contrasted with Genre Analysis.)

Reference.  The property of referring to some item in a real or imaginary world.

Referential.  Having to do with the Referential Subsystem.  Note that this usage is my own and it quite distinct from the normal use of the word “Reference” (see above).

Referential Subsystem.  The subsystem of a language providing resources for talking about any kind of subject matter.  (See under “System.”)  The possibility of paraphrase indicates that reference can be preserved even when the grammatical and phonological forms are altered.  (Referential Subsystem goes together with Grammatical Subsystem and Phonological Subsystem.)

Rhetorical Analysis.  Analysis of a Discourse in order to uncover the structure and organization of its Referential content and themes.  Particular attention is paid to all structures arising from the linear arrangement of material into its existing order in the Discourse.
		Rhetorical Analysis as I define it has little to do with the practice of “rhetorical criticism” in mainstream biblical scholarship, since rhetorical criticism focuses on formal features of discourse whereas my Rhetorical Analysis focuses on what is said using all the resources of language.  Formal features are only one clue among many.
		(Rhetorical Analysis goes together with Motific Analysis and Analogical Analysis.)

Sanctification.  The work of God’s free grace, whereby we are renewed in the whole man after the image of God, and are enabled more and more to die unto sin, and live unto righteousness.  (WSC Q. 35).

Sense (of a word).  A distinct meaning of a word, such as might be found under the dictionary entry of a word.  For example, “lilac” has two Senses, (1) a common garden shrub; (2) the color of lilac flowers.

Source Criticism.  The practice (usually within the framework of the Historical-critical Method) of trying to reconstruct written sources used by a particular text.  Source Criticism used to be called “higher criticism” or “literary criticism,” but this earlier terminology is confusing.  (See Form Criticism.)

Synchronic Analysis.  The study of a particular Discourse, language, event, or other item in the context of its relations and use at a particular point in time, without reference to earlier or later modifications.  People’s memories of earlier events and discourses are relevant to synchronic analysis, since those memories are part of the immediate time period being examined.  But the past itself, in distinction from memories of the past, is ignored by synchronic analysis.  (Synchronic Analysis contrasts with Diachronic Analysis.)

System.  A coherent multidimensional structure of relations between parts of a whole.  Human languages can be viewed both as languages in use (the sum of all utterances in the given language), and as systematic structures that are available to use, that is, as a repertory of possibilities that exist even before we make a particular use of them.  When viewed as a systematic structures, languages have three roughly distinguishable but closely interlocking subsystems, namely the Phonological, Grammatical, and Referential Subsystems.  When written discourse is in view, a Graphological Subsystem replaces the Phonological Subsystem.

Text.  A Discourse in written (graphic) form.

Text Criticism.  The practice of comparing different extant copies of a text in order to reconstruct the history of its transmission.  One of the main purposes of text criticism is usually to reconstruct as accurately as possible the autographic text from which all extant copies are descended.

Unit.  A distinguishable chunk or object, such that a native observer of a particular language and culture typically sees the unit as having a unity and integrity of its own and customarily treats it as a whole.  For example, the “p” sound in English is a unit, even though it is typically aspirated (has a puff of air after it) at the beginning of a word and unaspirated word-medially.  By contrast, in some other languages of the world (including Attic Greek), aspirated and unaspirated sounds constitute distinct units.  (Unit goes together with Hierarchy and Context.)

Variation.  The range of features that a particular unit (such as a word) may possess and still be identifiable as the “same” word.  For example, the word “perceive” may be whispered or shouted or uttered by a man’s or woman’s voice.  It may imply use of physical senses in one context (“When he got within two feet of the picture, he finally perceived the red spot.”) and purely mental processes in another (“He perceived the implications of the philosopher’s reasoning.”).  (Variation goes together with Identity and Distribution.)

Word.  A minimum-size Grammatical Unit capable of considerable freedom in arrangement in larger units.  A word is typically the minimum size grammatical unit that can occur in response to a question.  For example, “Where did he go?”  “Home.”